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Transfer Pricing for Small & Mid-Size Business – What is Important Now and Why

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Frank J. Vari, JD, MTax, CPA

One of the most common questions we at FJV receive from our small business clients is what is transfer pricing and why must we address it now?  Many clients – and some practitioners – seek an answer but are overwhelmed by the complex and conflicting information generally available.

If your company plans to expand business operations into the U.S. or expand their U.S. operations into another country at least a basic understanding of transfer pricing is required.  Once there is a basic understanding, one can better comply with the legally mandated transfer pricing rules and then create a strategic pricing plan.

To best explain, let’s discuss transfer pricing basics, pricing methods, and documentation requirements.

Transfer Pricing Basics

A “transfer price” is the price at which related companies located in different countries buy and sell goods and services to each other.  This is very important to each country’s taxing authority as each country wants to tax a share of these worldwide profits.  “Transfer pricing” is generally defined as the legal mechanism that allocates the profit from that related party sale between the competing tax jurisdictions without creating double taxation.  This mechanism, as outlined in a variety of laws around the world, allocates global supply chain profits based upon the functions and risks of the related parties.  The party which performs the most important and costly functions, e.g., design and manufacturing, and takes the greatest risk, e.g., capital investment and customer credit risks, is entitled to the greater profit.

For example, let’s assume a U.S. entity manufactures medical equipment and sells it to a related party located in Germany.  The German entity then resells the equipment to its customers within Germany.  The financial elements here are as follows:

  • The medical equipment is manufactured in the U.S. at a cost of $10,000.
  • The parent sells this equipment to its German relative for $17,000 realizing a taxable profit in the U.S. of $7,000.
  • The German entity then resells this same equipment to an unrelated German customer for $20,000 thus realizing a taxable German profit of $3,000.
  • The total taxable profit for the entire global supply chain is $10,000.

How can the U.S. entity justify receiving 70% of the taxable profits, while the German entity only 30%?  In our example, the U.S. entity has performed the costly research, design, and manufacturing functions for the medical equipment.  The German subsidiary is only involved in the local German marketing and distribution of the product which requires little capital or investment.  Thus, the U.S. entity has performed the greater functions and taken the greater risk which legally entitles them to the greater profit.

This profit split may be challenged by either the U.S. or German tax authorities using their own local transfer pricing laws.  However, almost every country, including the U.S. and Germany, requires that each related taxpayer perform and document a transfer pricing analysis of their taxable profit allocation with related parties.  No exceptions.

Learn More about FJV’s Transfer Pricing Practice by Clicking Here

Transfer Pricing Methods

The IRS first enacted rules back in 1928 to address intercompany profit allocations that have evolved into present-day IRC Code §482.  These rules actually empower the IRS to reallocate income or deductions between related parties to prevent tax evasion.  If the taxpayer doesn’t perform a properly documented allocation or get it right the IRS will do it for them.  Not a good place to be for sure.

IRC Code §482 requires taxpayers to create and document a transfer pricing policy that chooses the best method to justify the transfer price of goods and services.  The IRS allows various methods for various types of transactions.  Transfers of heavy equipment, software, and consulting services are all sufficiently different that different pricing methods are required.

One of the most common pricing methods – and the one most preferred by the IRS and other taxing authorities – is the Comparable Uncontrolled Price (“CUP”) methodology.  In our example, let’s assume our U.S. entity also sells the same type of medical equipment to unrelated Chinese and Australian customers for more than it sells to the German related party.  The IRS may – and probably will – argue that the U.S. entity is not charging Germany enough and a greater U.S. taxable profit should be reported.  Alternatively, if the U.S. entity sells the medical equipment to all three customers, both related an unrelated, for the same price it could justify the intercompany transfer price between the related U.S. and German entities as an “arm’s-length” price.

IRC Code §482 provides other methods besides the CUP to be used for transfer pricing of goods and services.  These methods include the Cost Plus method, the Resale Price method, the Comparable Profits method, and the Profit Split method.  Taxpayers can even use an unspecified method if they can support it.  Taxpayers must be careful to analyze each of those methods separately and select the “best method” for that particular transaction in order to comply with IRC Code §482.

Learn More About FJV’s International Tax Practice By Clicking Here

Documentation Requirements & Penalties

One very important and often overlooked rule is that taxpayers are required to prepare and maintain contemporaneous documentation that explains in a very detailed and technical manner their transfer pricing methodologies.  “Contemporaneous” means this documentation must be compiled at the same time their U.S. tax return is filed.  If the IRS requests this documentation, the taxpayer must produce it within 30 days of an IRS request.  If the taxpayer fails to do so, two very bad things can happen.  First, as noted above, the IRS will go ahead and allocate the related party profits as they see fit.  Second, the taxpayer will be subject to the documentation penalty provisions of IRC Code §6662.

If the IRS makes a transfer pricing adjustment resulting in an underpayment of tax and the documentation requirement was not met, IRC Code §6662 permits IRS to impose a 20% or 40% percent non-deductible penalty.  The 20% penalty applies if the transfer price adjustment exceeds the lesser of $5 million or 10% of the taxpayer’s gross receipts.  If the transfer price adjustment exceeds the lesser of $20 million or 20% of the taxpayer’s gross receipts the IRS may impose a 40% penalty on the adjustment.

Besides proper transfer pricing documentation, U.S. taxpayers must comply with other important requirements including:

  • U.S. taxpayers who have related party transactions with their subsidiaries located outside of the U.S. must report these transactions on Form 5471.
  • U.S. taxpayers who have related party transactions with their foreign owners and their related parties must report these transactions on Form 5472.
  • If the related party sale involves a customs or duty filing, the price on the filing must be the same as that reported in the transfer pricing documentation and the Form 5471 or 5572. The failure to “harmonize” these filings can lead to additional penalties.

These are very harsh penalties that are often incurred by U.S. taxpayers who do not perform written transfer pricing studies to properly allocate or report related party profits.  The problem is there is really no way around them for small taxpayers.  Small taxpayers around the world have long called for exemptions from transfer pricing reporting but there is no significant relief to date.

Conclusion

Transfer pricing is a complicated issue that must be addressed proactively.  If properly addressed in a timely manner, transfer pricing can be addressed at a reasonable cost.  If not, the penalties kick in and the cost of these penalties coupled with the legal and professional fees of a transfer pricing conflict with any tax authority can be very high.

Our advice to any client with related party transactions that cross a foreign border is to proactively address their transfer pricing issues in a timely manner.  Whether they sell tangible property, services, or sell or license intangible property, our advice is the same.  At the end of the day, it saves our clients time and money and brings them fully into compliance with the law.

Frank J. Vari, JD, MTax, CPA is the practice leader of FJV Tax which is a CPA firm specializing in complex international and U.S. tax planning.  FJV Tax has offices in Wellesley and Boston.  The author can be reached via email at frank.vari@fjvtax.com or telephone at 617-770-7286/800-685-2324.  You can learn more about FJV Tax at fjvtax.com.

 

Foreign Asset Tax Compliance and Why It Is Important Right Now

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Frank J. Vari, JD, MTax, CPA

International tax can be a very complex subject but most associate both the topic and the complexity with multinational businesses.  That may be true, but the greatest risk if often borne by individuals who do not properly understand their U.S. reporting obligations for foreign income, assets, and investments.  With the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) recently declaring that the IRS Offshore Voluntary Disclosure Program (OVDP), which was started in 2009, will close for good on September 28, 2018, taxpayers with unreported foreign assets should immediately determine if ODVP would benefit them before it is gone for good.  At this same time, the IRS has noted that their enhanced enforcement efforts against unreported foreign assets will not end.  Thus, the time is now for taxpayers with unreported foreign assets to formulate a plan for compliance or risk what have been, in certain cases, draconian penalties.

Many individual taxpayers, including those from outside the U.S. who are not educated in U.S. tax reporting rules, own assets located in different countries.  Some of these assets are as benign as a bank account they hold with an elderly relative to those with a Swiss bank account fully intended for shelter from the U.S. tax and legal system.  In practice, most all of these cases lean toward the former, however, they all are covered by pretty much the same rules.

This article is intended to provide a quick overview of the issue and the avenues available to taxpayers to maintain or obtain compliance with the rules.

Reporting Basics

It is probably not news to any practitioner that a U.S. taxpayer has to report all of their income on a global basis.  It is also probably not news that many individual clients do not fully disclose, or fully understand the law to disclose, each and every non-U.S. income stream.  That, at a minimum, must be done even if it takes some digging to gather all of the appropriate information.

Reporting assets located outside the U.S. is a bit more tricky.  Not only from an asset identification perspective but from a where and how to report perspective.  For example, a U.S. taxpayer may have a small longtime family home somewhere in Europe that they occasionally rent to friends.  It’s simple enough to understand that the income must be reported on Schedule E, but what about the real estate itself?  More on that later but you see the issue.

Foreign Bank Account Reporting (FBAR)

U.S. residents or citizens must report a financial interest in, or signature or other authority over, specified bank and other accounts in a foreign country on Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) Form 114 (the successor to the beloved Form TD 90-22.1), i.e., FBAR, if the accounts aggregate maximum values exceed $10,000 at any time during a calendar year.  Please note the “aggregate” and “at any time” language.

FBAR requirements apply to individuals, corporations, partnerships, trusts, estates, and LLCs as well as entities disregarded for tax purposes.  The regulations under Sec. 6038D require that a specified person look through a disregarded entity for reporting foreign assets on Form 8938 (discussed below).  However, the FBAR requirements impose a separate, independent reporting obligation on such entities.

There are plenty of traps for the unwary here.  The most simple may be a U.S. taxpayer who has signatory authority to co-sign with an elderly relative located outside the U.S.  More difficult to identify is the reporting obligation of a U.S. corporate executive who has signatory authority, likely along with many others, over a long dormant overseas corporate bank account or accounts exceeding $10,000 at some point during a calendar year.  It is a very common situation that is difficult to identify and, hence, ensure compliance.  Add fiscal years and foreign currency translation to the equation and you see where the simple becomes difficult even for sophisticated taxpayers.

Form 8938

Specified U.S. individuals with foreign financial assets may need to file Form 8938, also known as the Statement of Specified Foreign Financial Assets as part of their annual income tax return. A “specified individual” is a U.S. citizen, a resident alien of the U.S., or anon-resident alien filing a joint U.S. income tax return.

The “financial assets” which must be reported includes foreign bank accounts, assets held for investment by a foreign institution, foreign retirement plans, and jointly owned foreign financial assets.  It is not uncommon for a business executive who has moved to the U.S. to have an interest in a foreign pension plan from a former employer.  Items like this must be considered.

The Form 8938 reporting thresholds range from $50,000 of foreign financial assets on the last day of the year or $75,000 at any time during the year for unmarried U.S. individuals to $400,000 on the last day of the year and $600,000 at any time during the year for married joint filers living abroad.  Be sure to reference the detailed Form 8938 reporting requirements once the assets themselves are identified.

Besides the individual nature of Form 8938, it is important to note one critical difference between Form 8938 reporting and FBAR. Form 8938 does not require reporting of financial accounts held in foreign branches or held in foreign affiliates of a U.S.-based financial institution.  However, such accounts are considered financial accounts for purposes of FBAR reporting because they are located in a foreign country.

Other Common Reporting Forms

The FBAR and Form 8938 are the most widely used foreign asset reporting forms but not the only ones.  There are a number of others that capture different kinds of foreign asset activity.  These are:

  • Form 926, Return by a U.S. Transferor of Property to a Foreign Corporation, for reporting transfers of property to foreign corporations;
  • Form 3520, Annual Return to Report Transactions With Foreign Trusts and Receipt of Certain Foreign Gifts;
  • Form 3520-A, Annual Information Return of Foreign Trust With a U.S. Owner, for reporting affiliations with foreign trusts or the receipt of gifts from non-U.S. persons;
  • Form 5471, Information Return of U.S. Persons With Respect to Certain Foreign Corporations;
  • Form 5472, Information Return of a 25% Foreign-Owned U.S. Corporation or a Foreign Corporation Engaged in a U.S. Trade or Business, for reporting interests in foreign controlled corporations and reporting transactions with foreign corporations; and
  • Form 8865, Return of U.S. Persons With Respect to Certain Foreign Partnerships, for reporting interests in foreign partnerships.

Each of these forms captures different types of investments and may apply to both individuals and businesses in different forms.

Penalties

The IRS has identified unreported foreign assets as a key element of U.S. tax evasion.  So too have foreign tax authorities.  As such, the IRS has enacted significant penalties which, coupled with aggressive enforcement, creates a perilous environment for individuals and entities who fail to accurately file these forms. The penalties are very severe, especially considering the fact that the IRS has not made it easy for those with foreign assets to clearly understand what must be reported and how.

The penalties can be very high and reach upwards of $10,000 per form per year.  If the IRS establishes that the taxpayer willfully decided not to file the form, their can be criminal penalties as well as civil penalties reaching upwards of millions of dollars depending on the value of the overseas assets.

For practitioners who know, or reasonably should know, of these unreported or underreported foreign assets, Circular 230 still stands to require disclosure with its penalty provisions.

Resolution Options

Once the issue is identified, the appropriate course of action must be determined.  If the IRS has identified the issue first or the taxpayer has engaged in willful failure to report, the only option is constructing a legal defense.  Those that have experienced this know it to be a potentially very costly experience and more so if criminal penalties are involved.

The most reasonable option to those who otherwise have unreported foreign assets is the  OVDP program.  Taxpayers who voluntarily come forward and provide the IRS with the nature and extent of their undisclosed foreign assets and income are given assurances that the IRS would recommend against criminal prosecution of these taxpayers.  In addition, taxpayers are required to pay all outstanding taxes, interest, and a 20% penalty on the amount of previously unpaid taxes for up to 8 years of noncompliance.  Other various penalties apply depending on the form and the facts and circumstances of the case.

These OVDP penalties, while still sometimes steep, pale in comparison with potential penalties if the taxpayers do not enter into the OVDP and are identified by the IRS.  In addition to potential criminal sanctions, taxpayers could pay up to a 75% fraud penalty for any previously undisclosed income and the greater of $100,000 or up to 100% of the entire foreign bank account balance for each year of willful noncompliance with FBAR requirements.

It is important to note that the OVPD is not the only option available as the Streamlined Procedures Program still exists.  The appropriate option for the taxpayer depends again on the facts and circumstances.

What to do Now

As noted above, the IRS fully intends to continue increasing the number of criminal prosecutions of taxpayers involved in failing to report overseas assets.  Additional disclosure methods continue arising and include foreign banks, e.g., UBS, continuing to enter into non-prosecution agreements with the U.S. Department of Justice.  Additional tools ranging from international tax information sharing agreements to data mining will continue to aggressively identify non-complaint taxpayers.

It is very important for taxpayers who believe they may have issue to immediately determine a plan of compliance and if OVDP is their best option.  Failure to fully evaluate their options before OVDP expires this fall could be very costly.

To learn more about FJV’s foreign tax compliance and tax audit and controversy practices which have considerable experience with this important topic and how it impacts your business and tax positions, please contact FJV Tax or visit us at fjvtax.com.

This article was previously published by the Massachusetts Society of Certified Public Accountants (MSCPA).